This proposal emphasizes the dynamic nature of testing; tests can change students' knowledge even as they attempt to measure that knowledge. Taking a test often improves performance on a later test, even if no feedback is provided. Tests' memorial benefits likely occur because tests provide additional study opportunities as well as retrieval practice. However, tests can also have negative memorial consequences. For example, multiple-choice (MC) tests expose students to both correct and incorrect answers - and MC lures can be viewed as a form of [unreadable] misinformation. Taking a MC exam increases the likelihood that college students will answer later cued recall questions with previously read MC lures (a negative testing effect). The proposed research will examine whether there are age differences in positive and negative testing effects. The consequences of taking an initial multiple-choice test on a later cued recall general knowledge test will be examined, for three different age groups: 1st graders, 3rd graders, and college students. All subjects will answer multiple-choice questions defined as 'easy' (1 grade level below their current level) and 'hard' (1 grade level above their current level). This will allow comparisons both across age groups on the same general knowledge questions, and between easy and hard questions within an age group. Of interest are age differences in the negative testing effect, as this will have theoretical implications (Aim 1). Two additional studies will examine the persistence of observed effects over a delay (Aim 2) and in the face of corrective feedback (Aim 3). From a theoretical perspective, this proposal will integrate work on developmental science with research on adult cognition. It will allow examination of memory errors in a different paradigm from the dominant ones in developmental research, namely eyewitness and autobiographical memory. Not all memory errors are driven by the same underlying mechanisms, and thus results should come from different paradigms. From an applied perspective, it is important to understand the consequences of testing, as it is becoming increasingly prevalent and valued in our society. Many children likely suffer from test anxiety, and poor performance on tests can lead to a referral for special services to aid learning. In this way, testing may have consequences not only for the school system, but also for the mental health system. [unreadable] [unreadable] [unreadable]